Single-Camera Framework Estimates Bubble Depth Proxy

Chaitanya Nayak and colleagues (submitted Jan 29, 2026) introduce a machine-learning framework that detects bubbles and estimates their depth using a single 20 kHz high-speed camera with 3 µm resolution. The method combines unsupervised clustering to create pseudo-labels with a small set of in-plane annotations to train a semi-supervised model, producing continuous depth-proxy scores and robust instance segmentation with AP 0.818.